The Makers of Buddhism

This paper explores the material culture of Negoroji temple in the sixteenth century by focusing on the roles of crafts as originators of socio-religious networks involving a multiplicity of actors such as monks, “ascetics” (gyōnin), local potentates (dogō), lineage members (ujibito), and artisans. To exemplify such relational interweaving based on the circulation of things, I analyze the famous golden bronze bird neck long sword (kondō torikubi tachi), and the 1515 demon-tile (onigawara) made by the tile master Fujiwara Tokiyoshi. In the conclusion, I emphasize the porosity that characterized the space of medieval Buddhist temples, as well as the soteriological nature attributed to the production of certain crafts, the salvific merit of which was shared among makers and donors. 

Prince Shōtoku is a key figure in ancient Japanese history and came to be revered as Shōtoku Taishi after his death. The Shōtoku Taishi denryaku, compiled during the Heian period, played a central role in shaping the belief that he was an incarnation of Kannon, the Bodhisattva of compassion. As a result, he was worshipped not only as the founder of Japanese Buddhism but also as a transcendent, almost superhuman figure.

During the medieval period, a tradition emerged claiming that Prince Shōtoku introduced Gigaku (masked dance-drama) to Japan and entrusted its study to Hata no Kawakatsu and his lineage. This legend became closely linked to the origins of the Shitennōji musicians and Bugaku (court dance). This paper explores how the 612 CE account in the Nihon Shoki about Gigaku’s arrival in Japan was incorporated into later biographies of Shōtoku Taishi and how the perception of his role evolved over time. Additionally, it examines how the musicians at Shitennōji came to revere him as the guardian of Bugaku, a belief that ultimately contributed to the preservation and transmission of Buddhist performing arts.

Furthermore, Zeami, the founder of Noh theater, adopted the surname Hata and traced the origins of Noh back to Prince Shōtoku. Over time, his legendary image, shaped by hagiographical traditions, extended beyond performing arts to influence fields such as architecture, flower arrangement, incense appreciation, and even the development of fermented foods. As a “sacred protector,” Prince Shōtoku played a vital role in shaping the foundations of Japanese culture.

Located in the commercial city of Osaka, Shitennōji may not immediately appear to be a historically significant temple due to its post-war reconstruction using steel-reinforced concrete. However, it is said to have been founded by Prince Shōtoku in 593, and archaeological investigations have confirmed its establishment in the early seventh century, making it one of Japan’s oldest temples.

Originally, Shitennōji was expected to function as a temple for national protection. However, during the Heian period, it transformed into a center of Prince Shōtoku worship, a shift that shaped its subsequent history. This lecture examines the sacred nature of Shitennōji from the perspectives of place, objects, and people.

Regarding place, excavations in the twentieth century confirmed that the temple was founded in the early seventh century, aligning with the traditional belief in its connection to Prince Shōtoku. Additionally, the current temple complex, although reconstructed with modern materials, faithfully replicates the architectural style of Asuka-period temples, allowing visitors to experience its historical significance firsthand.

Regarding objects, two key documents from the Heian period, Shōtoku Taishi denryaku and Shitennōji goshuin engi, established Shitennōji as a sacred site of both Prince Shōtoku worship and Pure Land Buddhism. The temple also came to be revered by the founders of various Buddhist sects and functioned as a center for social welfare activities.

Regarding people, despite repeated destruction due to wars and natural disasters, Shitennōji was continually rebuilt with the support of ruling authorities. By the nineteenth century, it had also gained significance as a “temple of the common people.” In the twentieth century, the temple suffered three major destructions—from lightning, a typhoon, and wartime bombings—but was rebuilt each time, largely funded by public donations, leading to the present-day temple grounds.

The sacred nature of Shitennōji has evolved over time, enabling it to endure throughout history. As values continue to shift in the modern era, the question remains: Can this temple’s sacred status be preserved? The first step in addressing this challenge is to deepen our understanding of its historical significance.

Chinese correlative cosmology and its applications to various technical fields (medicine, astronomy, calendar, divination, music and so forth), like many other elements from the continent, was first introduced to Japan by Buddhist monks. Even after the establishment of the official Bureau of Divination and Cosmology (On’yōryō) in the 7th century CE, and the clear separation of monks and cosmologists (on’yōji), connections still existed, to the point where, by the late Heian-Early Kamakura period, hosshi onmyōji (Master of dharma/cosmologists) were playing an important role in both aristocratic and warrior circles. Although astronomy and calendar were for long a long time the prerogative of the Kamo and Abe lineages, the gradual decline of state-sponsored institutions, along with the Ōnin wars, allowed for further integration of cosmology-related techniques within Buddhist circles. The Hoki naiden, an early Muromachi text, and its later commentaries from the 16th and 17th centuries testify to this appropriation and reinvention of Onmyōdō system and techniques. This presentation will attempt to show how the Hoki naiden was used and studied in late medieval-early modern circles, also as a way to reflect upon the role played by cosmology-related discourse and practices as a concrete activity for Buddhist scholars.

Starting from the case of the blacksmith deity Kanayago, this paper will explore the nebula formed by the cults of Kōjin, the fire god(s), and the stove deity, as well as their relationship with material culture and craftsmen in medieval and early modern Japan.

The Bugaku dance of Nara period was a sacred offering to Buddha. From the eleventh century, with Pure Land Buddhism’s rise, Bugaku enhanced the desire to be reborn in the Buddha’s world by representing the Pure Land to pilgrims. Thus, Bugaku dance as used in Buddhist rituals evolved to symbolize the dance of the bodhisattvas in the world of the Buddha, beyond being a mere offering from humans to the Buddha.

Japan’s long eighth century is characterized by a vigorous construction boom which saw the establishment of six capital cities, a nationwide network of Buddhist temples, scores of other state-sponsored and private temples, as well as more permanent and larger shrine complexes dedicated to the kami. Whereas ample scholarship is available on the buildings that were constructed at the time, much less attention has been paid to the makers of those structures.

This paper focuses on the people behind the construction of the ancient temples, palaces, and government buildings through the lens of surviving material culture. The cast of characters will involve all segments of society, ranging from emperors and empresses to craftsmen and slaves. Moving beyond the traditional historical records, the paper will also include details that can be gleaned from inscribed wooden tablets to reconstruct the livelihoods of the skilled and unskilled laborers. Additional archaeological evidence will be used to complete the picture and to further explore the influence of immigrant lineages, differences between center and periphery, and the emergence of architectural styles.

In March 1945, half of the grounds of Shitennōji Temple were burned down during the Great Osaka Air Raid. The war ended in August of the same year, and reconstruction began the following year. What was it like to revive temples at a time when Buddhism was at its most removed from people’s lives? Numerous individuals and organizations were involved in the reconstruction (priests, scholars, sculptors, and the Kongō-gumi construction company).

Not only in Japan, culture transforms throughout history. Even in the case of architecture and Buddhist statues, different styles emerge in different eras. Shitennōji, when it was rebuilt after the war, was not constructed in the temple style of the Shōwa era (1926–1989), but there was instead a conscious attempt to restore the architectural style from the time of its founding in the early seventh century, and this is what is appreciated today.

Restoration is based on the results of historical studies, and can be considered a characteristic of the modern era (in the last 150 years). From this perspective, the architecture, Buddhist statues, and paintings of Shitennōji as it was rebuilt after the war are a living example of the temple’s “tradition and innovation.”